Q WAS the Holy Roman Empire a continuation of the Roman Empire and when did the last emperor rule? - Bill Hutchinson, Chester-le-Street.

A THE Holy Roman Empire started as the Carolingian Empire of Charlemagne, in 800AD but its real foundation is attributed to the German King, Otto I (912-973AD). Charlemagne was an ally of the Pope and a rival of the Lombards in northern Italy. When the Lombards attacked the papal lands, Charlemagne came to the Pope's defence, defeating the Lombards in 773AD. In 799AD Charlemagne defended the Pope and the Pope rewarded him by crowning him Emperor of Rome.

The original Roman Empire had been split in two - western and eastern - in 395AD with respective capitals at Rome and Constantinople, but the last of the western Emperors, Romulus Augustus, was deposed by the Goths in 476AD. The eastern empire survived under the name Byzantine Empire and continued until the 15th century.

In 552AD, the Byzantines successfully defeated the Goths and re-established the western empire. The appointment of Charlemagne as Emperor in 800AD revived the title of Emperor in the west. In 843AD, the Frankish heartland of the Carolingian Empire split into two with the Eastern Franks forming 'the German State'. It gained the upper hand under its leader, Otto I. The Pope crowned Otto Emperor and subsequent German kings would also inherit this title.

The king of the Germans was subject to election by a number of German princes. The position of Emperor was subject to appointment by the Pope. However, in practice, both appointments came to be made on a hereditary basis, so most of the Holy Roman Emperors were German.

Holy Roman Emperors were regarded as the supreme monarchs of Europe, but territorially their empire was confined to Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium and northern Italy. Some of the most powerful Emperors were members of the Hapsburg family who held the post from 1438. Religious conflict arose between the Catholic Hapsburgs and the Protestant princes of Germany which culminated in the Peace of Westphalia and the empire virtually dissolved.

In the early 19th century the Confederation of the Rhine, a league of German states, was established by Napoleon. All German states joined the confederation, renouncing their links with the Empire. The last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis I, relinquished his title in 1806 and the empire ended.

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Published: 30/12/2002